Grit and Deliberate Practice

Last Updated May 27, 2026

Grit and deliberate practice are closely connected, but they are not the same thing. Grit describes the long-term motivational pattern: perseverance and passion for difficult goals across months or years. Deliberate practice describes a specific kind of training: focused, structured, feedback-rich work designed to improve performance in a domain. Grit helps explain why someone may keep returning to demanding practice. Deliberate practice helps explain how that effort becomes skill.

This distinction matters because effort alone does not produce excellence. A person can work hard in ways that are unfocused, repetitive, poorly designed, or disconnected from feedback. Deliberate practice is different from ordinary repetition. It targets weaknesses, stretches current ability, uses feedback, requires concentration, and is often effortful rather than immediately enjoyable. Grit may help a learner tolerate that difficulty long enough for improvement to accumulate.

A serious account must also avoid simplification. Grit does not guarantee effective practice, and deliberate practice does not explain every form of achievement. Talent, prior preparation, coaching, instruction, health, resources, opportunity, institutional access, recovery, and domain structure all matter. The most useful question is not whether grit or deliberate practice “causes success” by itself. The better question is how long-term commitment, focused training, expert feedback, and supportive conditions interact to make meaningful development possible.

Overview

Grit and deliberate practice belong together in the study of long-term achievement. Grit concerns the motivational and personality side of persistence: why someone keeps working toward a demanding long-term goal. Deliberate practice concerns the learning and performance side: what kind of practice actually improves skill.

The relationship is powerful because the hardest forms of improvement are rarely pleasant in the short term. Deliberate practice often involves confronting weaknesses, repeating difficult components, receiving correction, and working at the edge of current ability. That kind of practice can be frustrating. Grit may help a person stay with it long enough to improve.

But the relationship can be misunderstood. Grit is not the same as practicing more hours. More time does not automatically mean better practice. Deliberate practice is not simply repetition, effort, or endurance. It is structured improvement activity. It requires goals, feedback, concentration, error correction, and progressive challenge.

A mature account therefore connects grit to deliberate practice without collapsing them. Grit helps sustain the return to difficulty. Deliberate practice makes that difficulty productive. Supportive systems make both possible.

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The core distinction

The core distinction is simple: grit is a motivational disposition; deliberate practice is a learning method. Grit concerns whether someone persists toward a long-term aim. Deliberate practice concerns whether the work they do is designed to improve performance.

A person can have grit without practicing deliberately. They may work for years, care deeply, and keep showing up, but repeat ineffective habits. A musician may play familiar pieces without isolating weaknesses. A student may reread notes without testing recall. An athlete may train hard without correcting technique. A writer may produce many pages without revision or feedback.

A person can also engage in deliberate practice without unusually high grit, at least for a time. A structured environment, coach, curriculum, deadline, or team may create practice conditions. But when practice remains difficult over months and years, grit may become more important because the learner must keep returning voluntarily to demanding improvement work.

The strongest developmental pattern joins both: commitment that endures, and practice that improves.

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What deliberate practice means

Deliberate practice is not simply doing an activity repeatedly. It is practice designed for improvement. In the expert-performance tradition, deliberate practice involves focused exercises, specific goals, immediate or useful feedback, correction of errors, and repeated work at the edge of current ability.

This makes deliberate practice different from performance. Performing a piece, playing a match, taking a test, giving a speech, or doing ordinary work may reveal skill, but it does not automatically build skill. Deliberate practice usually isolates components of performance and works on them deliberately.

Deliberate practice is also different from casual repetition. Repeating what is already comfortable may maintain familiarity, but it may not drive improvement. Deliberate practice is usually more mentally demanding because it forces attention onto weaknesses, not strengths.

The essential idea is that improvement requires structured difficulty. The learner must know what to improve, work on it directly, receive feedback, adjust, and repeat. Without that loop, effort can become motion without development.

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What grit contributes

Grit contributes continuity. Deliberate practice is often demanding, frustrating, and less enjoyable than easier forms of engagement. People may prefer performance, casual participation, social practice, or familiar routines because those activities feel more rewarding in the moment. Grit helps explain why some people continue choosing the harder activity that produces improvement.

Grit also contributes recovery after setback. Deliberate practice reveals weakness. It makes errors visible. It can be discouraging because the learner repeatedly encounters the gap between current ability and desired performance. Grit helps a person return to that gap rather than avoiding it.

Grit contributes long-term organization. Deliberate practice works best when individual sessions are part of a broader developmental arc. A learner needs to keep showing up, gradually increasing difficulty, integrating feedback, and staying connected to a larger goal. Grit helps protect that long-term structure.

But grit alone is not enough. Persistence without feedback can harden bad habits. Passion without correction can become self-confirming effort. Long-term commitment must be paired with intelligent practice design.

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The spelling bee evidence

One of the most influential studies connecting grit and deliberate practice examined competitors in the National Spelling Bee. The study distinguished among different preparation activities and found that deliberate practice was especially important. In that setting, deliberate practice involved difficult, focused word study rather than more enjoyable or social forms of preparation.

The key finding was that grittier competitors tended to engage in more deliberate practice, and deliberate practice helped explain performance. In other words, grit did not simply act as a mysterious trait. It operated through behavior: grittier spellers were more willing to do the difficult practice that improved performance.

This finding is valuable because it connects personality to mechanism. Grit matters less as an abstract label than as a tendency that helps people choose, sustain, and return to demanding improvement activities.

The evidence should still be interpreted carefully. A spelling bee is a specific domain with a clear performance structure, measurable outcomes, and a practice activity that can be defined. Other domains may be less tidy. Creative work, leadership, scientific discovery, caregiving, teaching, civic organizing, and entrepreneurship may require practice, but not always in the same narrowly measurable form.

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Ordinary practice versus deliberate practice

Ordinary practice can be useful, but it is not the same as deliberate practice. Ordinary practice may include repetition, participation, performance, review, or time spent in a domain. It can build familiarity and maintain skill. But it may not directly target weakness or produce improvement.

Deliberate practice is more demanding because it asks the learner to confront what is not yet working. It is diagnostic. It identifies errors, isolates components, and requires correction. This is why deliberate practice can be less enjoyable than easier forms of engagement.

For example, reading through notes may feel productive, but retrieval practice and error correction may produce deeper learning. Playing a whole piece of music may be satisfying, but isolating one difficult passage may improve performance more. Writing new pages may feel rewarding, but revising weak sentences may develop craft more directly.

The difference is not moral. Ordinary practice is not bad. Performance, play, exploration, and enjoyment matter. But when the goal is improvement, practice must become deliberate enough to change ability.

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Feedback, coaching, and correction

Feedback is central to deliberate practice. Without feedback, a learner may not know whether practice is improving performance or reinforcing errors. Feedback can come from a coach, teacher, mentor, peer, recording, test result, performance metric, or self-observation. What matters is that the learner receives information that can guide correction.

Grit can help the learner tolerate feedback. Corrective feedback can feel threatening because it exposes weakness. A less persistent learner may avoid feedback to protect confidence. A gritty learner may be more willing to hear what needs improvement because the long-term goal matters more than short-term comfort.

But feedback must be useful and humane. Harsh criticism is not automatically better feedback. Effective feedback is specific, actionable, timely, and connected to improvement. It helps the learner know what to do next.

Coaching also matters because learners do not always know what kind of practice they need. Novices may practice the wrong thing. Experts and teachers help structure the path between current ability and higher performance.

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Effort, enjoyment, and difficulty

Deliberate practice is often effortful. It may not be the most enjoyable activity in the moment because it focuses on weaknesses and stretches ability. This is one reason grit matters. A learner must sometimes choose the less enjoyable activity because it produces more improvement.

This does not mean learning should be joyless. Enjoyment, curiosity, play, belonging, and intrinsic interest all support long-term development. If practice becomes only pain, learners may burn out or lose connection to the goal. The point is not that deliberate practice should be miserable. The point is that improvement often requires forms of effort that are not immediately rewarding.

Grit can help bridge the gap between present difficulty and future meaning. A person may endure the discomfort of corrective practice because they care about the larger goal: mastering an instrument, becoming a physician, writing well, improving athletic technique, learning mathematics, or serving a community.

The healthiest development alternates challenge and recovery, deliberate practice and broader engagement, focused correction and meaningful participation.

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Skill development over time

Skill development is cumulative. Deliberate practice works because it creates repeated cycles of attempt, feedback, correction, and refinement. Over time, these cycles build more accurate mental representations, better techniques, faster recognition, stronger habits, and more flexible performance.

Grit supports this cumulative process by keeping the learner engaged across many cycles. One practice session rarely changes everything. Improvement usually comes from repeated engagement with difficulty. The learner must return again and again, often before visible rewards appear.

Skill development also depends on sequencing. A learner needs the right challenge at the right time. Practice that is too easy does not stretch ability. Practice that is too difficult may overwhelm. Teachers and coaches help calibrate the progression.

The relationship between grit and deliberate practice is therefore dynamic. Grit helps sustain practice; effective practice produces improvement; improvement can strengthen motivation; motivation supports further practice. Poorly designed practice can break the cycle by producing frustration without growth.

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Limits of grit and deliberate practice

Neither grit nor deliberate practice explains achievement by itself. Deliberate practice is important, but later research has questioned strong versions of the claim that practice accounts for nearly all expert performance. Practice matters, but people differ in prior experience, opportunity, coaching, physical and cognitive traits, access, resources, health, and timing.

Grit also has limits. Meta-analytic work suggests that grit’s relationship with achievement is generally modest and that grit overlaps substantially with conscientiousness. Perseverance of effort often appears more predictive than consistency of interests. These findings do not make grit useless, but they argue against exaggerated claims.

There are also domain differences. Deliberate practice is easier to define in domains with clear performance metrics, stable rules, expert coaching traditions, and immediate feedback. It is harder to define in open-ended domains such as leadership, entrepreneurship, caregiving, research creativity, spiritual formation, or civic life.

The most responsible interpretation is plural. Grit and deliberate practice are important pieces of development, but they sit inside a larger system of talent, instruction, support, opportunity, recovery, and institutional design.

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Implications for education

In education, the relationship between grit and deliberate practice has practical value. Students are often told to work harder, but “work harder” is too vague. A better question is: what kind of work improves learning?

Deliberate practice in education may include retrieval practice, worked-example fading, targeted problem solving, writing revision, spaced repetition, error analysis, feedback cycles, oral rehearsal, laboratory technique correction, or focused practice on weak subskills. The key is that practice should expose what students do not yet understand and help them improve it.

Grit matters because students may avoid the most useful practice. Rereading notes can feel comfortable. Solving difficult problems without notes feels harder. Revising a weak essay can feel frustrating. Receiving correction can feel personal. Grit helps students stay with the kind of effort that actually changes ability.

But schools must not use grit language to excuse poor instruction. Students need clear teaching, feedback, time, belonging, resources, and realistic opportunities to improve. Deliberate practice is not just a student responsibility. It is also an instructional design responsibility.

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Implications for work and organizations

Organizations often praise grit but fail to build deliberate-practice systems. They ask employees to persevere, adapt, and improve, but provide little feedback, coaching, time for skill development, or psychological safety. In such settings, grit language can become a demand for endurance rather than a pathway to mastery.

A workplace that takes deliberate practice seriously designs improvement loops. It gives people clear performance standards, coaching, feedback, protected learning time, progressively challenging assignments, and opportunities to reflect on errors. It distinguishes performance pressure from learning time.

Grit matters in work because meaningful professional development takes time. People must stay with complex skills through awkward early stages and repeated correction. But organizations must earn that commitment. They cannot simply demand grit while creating chaotic systems, unreasonable workloads, or punitive feedback cultures.

The best organizations support both persistence and practice quality. They make sustained effort worthwhile because the environment actually helps people improve.

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Burnout, overpractice, and recovery

Deliberate practice is demanding. That demand is part of its power, but also part of its risk. Practice that continually pushes difficulty without adequate recovery can produce burnout, injury, anxiety, resentment, or loss of interest. Grit can make this risk worse if persistence becomes disconnected from limits.

Healthy practice requires recovery. Musicians, athletes, students, surgeons, programmers, researchers, and writers all need rest, sleep, variation, reflection, and emotional recovery. Skill grows through stress and adaptation, not stress alone.

Overpractice can also narrow identity. When a long-term goal dominates all other sources of meaning, setbacks may become psychologically devastating. A mature account of grit must therefore include flexibility, relationships, rest, and the possibility of revision.

Deliberate practice should be difficult enough to improve skill, but not so relentless that it destroys the person practicing.

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Social context and access to practice

Deliberate practice requires conditions. It requires time, space, coaching, feedback, materials, safety, and enough stability to return repeatedly to improvement work. These conditions are not equally distributed.

A student with excellent teachers, quiet study space, stable housing, and family support has different practice conditions from a student working long hours, caring for siblings, or attending an under-resourced school. An athlete with expert coaching and safe facilities has different opportunities from one without equipment or transportation. A musician with lessons and instruments has different access from one learning alone.

This is why grit language must be used carefully. Praising persistent practice can become unfair if it ignores unequal access to practice conditions. A person may not lack grit; they may lack coaching, time, safety, or opportunity.

A socially serious account asks not only whether individuals persist, but whether institutions provide the conditions under which persistence can become skill.

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A mathematical lens on grit and deliberate practice

A simple model can represent performance as a function of grit, deliberate practice, prior skill, feedback, and support:

A mediation model can represent the idea that grit may affect performance partly through deliberate practice:

A sustainability model can add burnout:

This final model shows why practice cannot be reduced to hours. Improvement depends on practice quality, feedback, support, and recovery.

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Responsible use of the distinction

Responsible use begins by avoiding slogans. “Be gritty” is not enough. “Practice more” is not enough. The real question is whether the person has a meaningful goal, an effective practice structure, feedback, recovery, and fair access to improvement conditions.

For learners, the distinction can support reflection. If effort is high but improvement is weak, the problem may be practice design. If practice is effective but inconsistent, the problem may be long-term commitment, motivation, support, or burnout. If both are weak, the issue may involve goal fit, access, stress, or lack of feedback.

For educators and organizations, the distinction creates responsibility. It is not ethical to demand grit while withholding feedback, coaching, resources, or humane conditions. It is not useful to praise deliberate practice while ignoring unequal access to the time and support required for it.

For researchers, the distinction requires careful modeling. Grit, deliberate practice, prior skill, support, and performance should be analyzed as related but distinct variables.

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Python workflow: modeling grit, practice quality, and performance

The following Python workflow uses synthetic data to model grit, deliberate practice, feedback quality, prior skill, burnout, and performance. It compares a grit-only model with a deliberate-practice model and a contextual model.

# Python workflow: Grit and deliberate practice
# Synthetic data for article support and research-method demonstration only.
# Do not use this workflow to evaluate, rank, hire, discipline, or assess real people.

import numpy as np
import pandas as pd
import statsmodels.api as sm

rng = np.random.default_rng(42)
n = 900

# Grit facets
perseverance_effort = rng.normal(0, 1, n)
consistency_interests = rng.normal(0, 1, n)
grit = 0.60 * perseverance_effort + 0.40 * consistency_interests

# Practice conditions and prior skill
feedback_quality = rng.normal(0, 1, n)
coaching_access = rng.normal(0, 1, n)
prior_skill = rng.normal(0, 1, n)
social_support = rng.normal(0, 1, n)

# Deliberate practice: partly shaped by grit and practice conditions
deliberate_practice = (
    0.35 * grit
    + 0.28 * feedback_quality
    + 0.22 * coaching_access
    + 0.15 * social_support
    + rng.normal(0, 1, n)
)

# Burnout risk rises with excessive effort and low support
burnout = (
    0.20 * deliberate_practice
    - 0.25 * social_support
    - 0.20 * feedback_quality
    + rng.normal(0, 1, n)
)

# Synthetic performance outcome
performance = (
    0.16 * grit
    + 0.34 * deliberate_practice
    + 0.28 * prior_skill
    + 0.18 * feedback_quality
    + 0.16 * coaching_access
    + 0.14 * social_support
    - 0.18 * burnout
    + rng.normal(0, 1, n)
)

df = pd.DataFrame({
    "perseverance_effort": perseverance_effort,
    "consistency_interests": consistency_interests,
    "grit": grit,
    "feedback_quality": feedback_quality,
    "coaching_access": coaching_access,
    "prior_skill": prior_skill,
    "social_support": social_support,
    "deliberate_practice": deliberate_practice,
    "burnout": burnout,
    "performance": performance
})

print("Correlation matrix:")
print(df[[
    "grit",
    "deliberate_practice",
    "feedback_quality",
    "coaching_access",
    "prior_skill",
    "social_support",
    "burnout",
    "performance"
]].corr().round(3))

# Model 1: grit only
model_grit_only = sm.OLS(
    df["performance"],
    sm.add_constant(df[["grit"]])
).fit()

# Model 2: deliberate practice only
model_practice_only = sm.OLS(
    df["performance"],
    sm.add_constant(df[["deliberate_practice"]])
).fit()

# Model 3: grit plus deliberate practice
model_grit_practice = sm.OLS(
    df["performance"],
    sm.add_constant(df[["grit", "deliberate_practice"]])
).fit()

# Model 4: contextual model
model_contextual = sm.OLS(
    df["performance"],
    sm.add_constant(df[[
        "grit",
        "deliberate_practice",
        "prior_skill",
        "feedback_quality",
        "coaching_access",
        "social_support",
        "burnout"
    ]])
).fit()

comparison = pd.DataFrame({
    "model": [
        "grit_only",
        "deliberate_practice_only",
        "grit_plus_deliberate_practice",
        "contextual_model"
    ],
    "r_squared": [
        model_grit_only.rsquared,
        model_practice_only.rsquared,
        model_grit_practice.rsquared,
        model_contextual.rsquared
    ],
    "adjusted_r_squared": [
        model_grit_only.rsquared_adj,
        model_practice_only.rsquared_adj,
        model_grit_practice.rsquared_adj,
        model_contextual.rsquared_adj
    ]
})

print("\nModel comparison:")
print(comparison.round(4))

print("\nContextual model coefficients:")
print(model_contextual.params.round(4))

print("\nInterpretation:")
print(
    "Grit may help explain who sustains hard practice, but deliberate practice, "
    "feedback, coaching, prior skill, support, and burnout all shape performance. "
    "Effort becomes developmentally useful when it is structured, corrected, and sustainable."
)

This workflow demonstrates the central relationship. Grit may predict performance partly because it supports deliberate practice. But deliberate practice quality, feedback, coaching, prior skill, support, and burnout all change the interpretation.

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R workflow: deliberate-practice mediation and contextual controls

The following R workflow uses synthetic data to demonstrate a simple mediation-style structure: grit predicts deliberate practice, and deliberate practice predicts performance. It also adds contextual variables to prevent overclaiming.

# R workflow: Grit and deliberate practice
# Synthetic data for article support and research-method demonstration only.
# Do not use this workflow to evaluate, rank, hire, discipline, or assess real people.

set.seed(42)

n <- 900

# Grit facets
perseverance_effort <- rnorm(n)
consistency_interests <- rnorm(n)
grit <- 0.60 * perseverance_effort + 0.40 * consistency_interests

# Practice conditions and prior skill
feedback_quality <- rnorm(n)
coaching_access <- rnorm(n)
prior_skill <- rnorm(n)
social_support <- rnorm(n)

# Deliberate practice
deliberate_practice <- (
  0.35 * grit +
  0.28 * feedback_quality +
  0.22 * coaching_access +
  0.15 * social_support +
  rnorm(n)
)

# Burnout
burnout <- (
  0.20 * deliberate_practice -
  0.25 * social_support -
  0.20 * feedback_quality +
  rnorm(n)
)

# Performance
performance <- (
  0.16 * grit +
  0.34 * deliberate_practice +
  0.28 * prior_skill +
  0.18 * feedback_quality +
  0.16 * coaching_access +
  0.14 * social_support -
  0.18 * burnout +
  rnorm(n)
)

df <- data.frame(
  perseverance_effort,
  consistency_interests,
  grit,
  feedback_quality,
  coaching_access,
  prior_skill,
  social_support,
  deliberate_practice,
  burnout,
  performance
)

print(round(cor(df[, c(
  "grit",
  "deliberate_practice",
  "feedback_quality",
  "coaching_access",
  "prior_skill",
  "social_support",
  "burnout",
  "performance"
)]), 3))

# Path A: grit predicting deliberate practice
model_practice <- lm(
  deliberate_practice ~ grit + feedback_quality + coaching_access + social_support,
  data = df
)

# Model 1: grit only
model_grit_only <- lm(performance ~ grit, data = df)

# Model 2: deliberate practice only
model_practice_only <- lm(performance ~ deliberate_practice, data = df)

# Model 3: grit and deliberate practice
model_grit_practice <- lm(performance ~ grit + deliberate_practice, data = df)

# Model 4: contextual model
model_contextual <- lm(
  performance ~ grit + deliberate_practice + prior_skill +
    feedback_quality + coaching_access + social_support + burnout,
  data = df
)

comparison <- data.frame(
  model = c(
    "grit_only",
    "deliberate_practice_only",
    "grit_plus_deliberate_practice",
    "contextual_model"
  ),
  r_squared = c(
    summary(model_grit_only)$r.squared,
    summary(model_practice_only)$r.squared,
    summary(model_grit_practice)$r.squared,
    summary(model_contextual)$r.squared
  ),
  adjusted_r_squared = c(
    summary(model_grit_only)$adj.r.squared,
    summary(model_practice_only)$adj.r.squared,
    summary(model_grit_practice)$adj.r.squared,
    summary(model_contextual)$adj.r.squared
  )
)

print(round(summary(model_practice)$coefficients, 4))
print(round(comparison, 4))
print(round(summary(model_contextual)$coefficients, 4))

cat("
Interpretation:
This synthetic workflow shows why grit and deliberate practice should be
modeled separately. Grit may support the willingness to engage in difficult
practice, but performance also depends on practice quality, prior skill,
feedback, coaching, support, and burnout.
")

This workflow reinforces the article’s main argument: grit helps explain sustained return to hard work, but deliberate practice explains whether that hard work becomes improvement.

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GitHub Repository

The companion GitHub repository provides a reproducible research-code structure for the Grit knowledge series, including article-specific workflows, synthetic data examples, documentation, and multi-language modeling assets.

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Conclusion

Grit and deliberate practice are related, but they answer different questions. Grit asks why a person continues pursuing a difficult long-term goal. Deliberate practice asks whether the work they are doing is structured to improve performance. Grit supplies continuity. Deliberate practice supplies method.

The strongest account connects them through mechanism. Grit may help people tolerate difficult, feedback-rich practice that is less enjoyable in the moment but more useful for improvement. Deliberate practice then converts sustained effort into skill. But neither construct should be treated as sufficient by itself.

Practice quality matters. Feedback matters. Prior skill matters. Coaching matters. Recovery matters. Opportunity matters. A person cannot simply “grit” their way into expertise without access to the conditions that make improvement possible. Nor can deliberate practice remain sustainable without motivation, support, and humane limits.

The practical lesson is precise and demanding: persistence should be intelligent, and practice should be purposeful. The goal is not endless effort. The goal is sustained, feedback-guided, ethically supported development toward work that remains meaningful enough to deserve the effort it requires.

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Related articles

• What Is Grit?
• Angela Duckworth and the Modern Science of Grit
• Perseverance and Passion for Long-Term Goals
• Grit in Positive Psychology
• The Original Grit Scale and What It Measures
• The Short Grit Scale and the Problem of Measurement
• Perseverance of Effort Versus Consistency of Interests
• What the Meta-Analyses Say About Grit
• Grit and Self-Control: Related but Not the Same
• Grit and Conscientiousness: Overlap, Distinction, and Debate

Further reading

• Duckworth, A.L. (2016) Grit: The Power of Passion and Perseverance. New York: Scribner.
• Ericsson, K.A. (ed.) (2006) The Cambridge Handbook of Expertise and Expert Performance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Ericsson, K.A. and Pool, R. (2016) Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Hattie, J. and Timperley, H. (2007) ‘The power of feedback’, Review of Educational Research, 77(1), pp. 81–112. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
• National Research Council (2012) Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available at: https://www.nationalacademies.org/publications/13398/education-for-life-and-work-developing-transferable-knowledge-and-skills-in-the-21st-century
• University of Chicago Consortium on School Research (2015) Foundations for Young Adult Success: A Developmental Framework. Available at: https://consortium.uchicago.edu/publications/foundations-young-adult-success-developmental-framework

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References

• Credé, M., Tynan, M.C. and Harms, P.D. (2017) ‘Much ado about grit: A meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 113(3), pp. 492–511. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/pspp0000102
• Duckworth, A.L. (n.d.) Research. Available at: https://angeladuckworth.com/research/
• Duckworth, A.L., Kirby, T.A., Tsukayama, E., Berstein, H. and Ericsson, K.A. (2011) ‘Deliberate practice spells success: Why grittier competitors triumph at the National Spelling Bee’, Social Psychological and Personality Science, 2(2), pp. 174–181. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550610385872
• Duckworth, A.L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M.D. and Kelly, D.R. (2007) ‘Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), pp. 1087–1101. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087
• Duckworth, A.L. and Gross, J.J. (2014) ‘Self-control and grit: Related but separable determinants of success’, Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(5), pp. 319–325. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721414541462
• Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R.T. and Tesch-Römer, C. (1993) ‘The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance’, Psychological Review, 100(3), pp. 363–406. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.100.3.363
• Ericsson, K.A. and Pool, R. (2016) Peak: Secrets from the New Science of Expertise. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
• Hattie, J. and Timperley, H. (2007) ‘The power of feedback’, Review of Educational Research, 77(1), pp. 81–112. Available at: https://doi.org/10.3102/003465430298487
• Macnamara, B.N. and Maitra, M. (2019) ‘The role of deliberate practice in expert performance: Revisiting Ericsson, Krampe & Tesch-Römer (1993)’, Royal Society Open Science, 6(8), 190327. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.190327
• Macnamara, B.N., Hambrick, D.Z. and Oswald, F.L. (2014) ‘Deliberate practice and performance in music, games, sports, education, and professions: A meta-analysis’, Psychological Science, 25(8), pp. 1608–1618. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614535810
• National Research Council (2012) Education for Life and Work: Developing Transferable Knowledge and Skills in the 21st Century. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. Available at: https://www.nationalacademies.org/publications/13398/education-for-life-and-work-developing-transferable-knowledge-and-skills-in-the-21st-century
• University of Chicago Consortium on School Research (2015) Foundations for Young Adult Success: A Developmental Framework. Chicago: University of Chicago Consortium on School Research. Available at: https://consortium.uchicago.edu/publications/foundations-young-adult-success-developmental-framework

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